E-waste Recycling in China: A Challenging Field (2025)

E-waste is one of the fastest growing waste streams in the world. Valuable metals, such as Cu, Al, and Au, in e-wastes make e-waste recycling profitable and, thus, promote the activities of e-waste recycling. However, large amounts of toxic substances (e.g., Pb, Cd, persistent organic pollutants) are often released from the primitive dismantling activities of e-wastes to the surrounding environment and further trigger health consequences to the unprotected employees and local residents. (1) The e-waste recycling issue is like a Pandora’s box and raises major environmental and social concerns because of potential environmental and health risks. As a result, there is a sharp increase in the number of peer-reviewed papers reporting the problems (Figure 1).

Figure 1

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Although China has ratified Basel Convention on the Control of the Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal in the 1990s, China is still the world’s largest country for e-waste dumping. The importation of e-wastes from developed countries to China was about 1.5 million tonnes in 2001, of which 46.7% ended up in Guiyu, Guangdong province, known as the largest e-waste dismantling site in the world. (2) China tightened the regulation on the ban of importation and informal recycling of e-wastes, and declared that it was no longer willing to accept foreign garbage since 1 January 2018. The declining trend of imported e-waste has been observed over the years, in which the estimated e-waste importation is expected to be reduced to 0.32 million tonnes in 2018 and will eventually disappear in 2023. (2)

However, it is not the end of the story. Apart from transboundary importation, China itself is presently the second largest global producer of e-waste. The domestic generation of e-waste was about 6 million tonnes in 2014. (3) The per capita Chinese e-waste production per year was below the global average (5 kg vs 5.9 kg), and the rates of developed countries such as the USA and Japan. (3) Nevertheless, the annual increase rate of e-waste production in China was much higher than the global average (25.7% vs approximately 4–5%), (2,3) indicating that it is a major generator of e-waste. China is anticipated to generate approximately 28.4 million tonnes of e-waste in 2030, replacing the USA as the largest global e-waste producer. (2) Enhanced regulations and sophisticated recycling technologies could lead to positive effects in controlling the release of pollutants to the environment. (4) There are 109 licensed recycling enterprises (formal e-waste recyclers) in China currently (http://weee.mepscc.cn/Index.do?method=flow), but only 1.3 million tonnes of domestic e-wastes were recycled and treated by formal e-waste recyclers in 2013, (3) suggesting that most of the domestic e-wastes are not being handled appropriately. A field survey found that the domestic e-waste already accounted for a large part of e-waste in Guiyu in 2015, (2) which further implied that China is facing the problem from the fast-growing domestic generation of e-waste.

China is paying great attention to the e-waste recycling issues. Among e-waste papers published by top 10 countries, China ranked first and published over 1300 peer-reviewed papers on e-waste since 2000 (Figure 1 inset), which accounted for 43.3%, followed by the USA (15.6%) and Germany (7.7%). These papers have covered the fields of environmental impacts, human health risks, policy studies, recycling technologies of e-waste, etc. It is a challenge to deal with the e-waste recycling issues in both environmental and economic interests. Recycling e-waste is generally more cost-effective than virgin mining, and the huge amounts of valuable materials in e-waste provide a great opportunity. The e-waste recycling potential in China is expected to reach $73.4 billion US dollars by the year 2030. (2) However, present management strategies and domestic collection and recycling systems are inadequate to meet the opportunity. On one hand, less than 25% of the total domestic generated e-waste was treated by formal e-waste recycling facilities. New licensed recycling enterprises or expansion of recycling capacities are in great demand. On the other hand, a more effective domestic e-waste collection system should be established to fulfill the operational need of these factories. Meanwhile, the investigation of environmental impacts and health consequences among workers from formal e-waste recycling facilities will be indispensable. Moreover, the pace of treatment technologies should follow the evolution of e-product formulation because the substances in the e-products vary significantly from one generation to the next. For example, the nickel–metal hydride batteries have been gradually replaced by lithium-ion batteries, whereas the end-of-life recycling rates were >50% for nickel and <1% for lithium. (5) The growing market share of lithium-ion batteries in recent e-waste will require new recycling technologies. In addition, new materials such as carbon nanotubes and metallic nanoparticles are being used to enhance the performance of lithium-ion batteries and will require consideration during recycling. These materials might also pose health risks to workers and associated ecotoxicity to the surrounding environment during recycling.

E-waste recycling is facing changing times in China. The sources, recycling modes, and nature of reclaimed materials of e-waste are shifting from importation to domestic generation, informal to formal dismantling, and legacy to new materials, respectively. A strong and sustained effort is needed to establish and improve a long-effect mechanism of e-waste recycling in China.

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Corresponding Author
- Haiyan Zhang - Collegeof Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China; http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7508-7831; Email: [emailprotected]
Authors
- Jianjie Fu - StateKey Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, ResearchCenter for Eco-Environmental Sciences, ChineseAcademy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- Aiqian Zhang - StateKey Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, ResearchCenter for Eco-Environmental Sciences, ChineseAcademy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5680-2529
- Guibin Jiang - StateKey Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, ResearchCenter for Eco-Environmental Sciences, ChineseAcademy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgments

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This study was jointly supported by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Grant No. XDB14030500, and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 91743204, 21677168, 21507113).

References

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This article references 5 other publications.

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